Early antibiotic exposure and risk of psychiatric and neurocognitive outcomes: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background The prenatal and early-life periods pose a crucial neurodevelopmental window whereby disruptions to the intestinal microbiota and the developing brain may have adverse impacts. As antibiotics affect the human intestinal microbiome, it follows that early-life antibiotic exposure may be associated with later-life psychiatric or neurocognitive outcomes. Aims To explore the association between early-life (in utero and early childhood (age 0–2 years)) antibiotic exposure and the subsequent risk of psychiatric and neurocognitive outcomes. Method A search was conducted using Medline, PsychINFO and Excerpta Medica databases on 20 November 2023. Risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale, and certainty was assessed using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) certainty assessment. Results Thirty studies were included (n = 7 047 853 participants). Associations were observed between in utero antibiotic exposure and later development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (odds ratio 1.09, 95% CI: 1.02–1.16) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (odds ratio 1.19, 95% CI: 1.11–1.27) and early-childhood exposure and later development of ASD (odds ratio 1.19, 95% CI: 1.01–1.40), ADHD (odds ratio 1.33, 95% CI: 1.20–1.48) and major depressive disorder (MDD) (odds ratio 1.29, 95% CI: 1.04–1.60). However, studies that used sibling control groups showed no significant association between early-life exposure and ASD or ADHD. No studies in MDD used sibling controls. Using the GRADE certainty assessment, all meta-analyses but one were rated very low certainty, largely owing to methodological and statistical heterogeneity. Conclusions While there was weak evidence for associations between antibiotic use in early-life and later neurodevelopmental outcomes, these were attenuated in sibling-controlled subgroup analyses. Thus, associations may be explained by genetic and familial confounding, and studies failing to utilise sibling-control groups must be interpreted with caution.