Multi-parametric imaging of tumor spheroids with ultra-bright and tunable nanoparticle O₂ probes

Multi-modal probes allow for flexible choice of imaging equipment when performing quenched-phosphorescence O2 measurements: one- or two-photon, PLIM or intensity-based ratiometric read-outs. Spectral and temporal (e.g. FLIMPLIM) discrimination can be used to image O₂ together with pH, Ca²⁺, mitochondrial membrane potential, cell death markers or cell/organelle specific markers. However, the main challenge of existing nanoparticle probes is their limited diffusion across thick (> 20-50 μm) 3D cell models such as tumor spheroids. Here, we present new class of polymeric nanoparticle probes having tunable size, charge, cell-penetrating ability, and reporter dyes. Being spectrally similar to the recently described MM2, PA2 and other O₂ probes, they are 5-10 times brighter, demonstrate improved ratiometric response and their surface chemistry can be easily modified. With cultures of 2D and 3D cell models (fibroblasts, PC12 aggregates, HCT116 human colon cancer spheroids) we found cell-specific staining by these probes. However, the efficient staining of model of interest can be tuned by changing number of positive and negative surface groups at nanoparticle, to allow most efficient loading. We also demonstrate how real-time monitoring of oxygenation can be used to select optimal spheroid production with low variability in size and high cell viability.