'Never any realm worse governed': Queen Elizabeth and Ireland

Elizabeth's reign was calamitous for Ireland and indeed the mismanagement there was close to bringing disaster upon England as well. Why could she not have muddled through in Ireland with the sort of Tudor consensus and conciliation that worked for England and Wales? Elizabeth had good intentions towards Ireland and Irish but these were stymied by a range of historical, political, gender and personal issues. Unlike Wales, the subjugation of Ireland had not been completed during the middle ages. Henry VIII had embarked upon the integration of Ireland at a time of religious upheaval and strategic threat. This process - the so-called reformation of Ireland - was still ongoing when Elizabeth came to the throne and the international situation became more menacing both ideologically and militarily as her reign unfolded. Female monarchical rule was a difficult enough task in the home polity but the task of governing a subordinate kingdom through male proxies made the government of Ireland doubly difficult. This paper starts with the problems facing Elizabeth in Ireland, looks at the personalities and policies of those she governed through, examines the responses of the Irish elite and makes some conclusions.