Waterpower and sustainable energy in 19^th-century Europe and USA. An archaeology of the water turbine

During the 19^th century, many coal-poor regions of Europe and the USA had to rely on water-powered prime movers in the early years of industrialization. The development of water turbines by French engineers such as Fourneyron and Jonval, and later by Thomson in Ireland and by Howd, Francis and Pelton in America, provided a vital respite from the unavailability of coal in the drive towards industrialization. In this way, 19^th-century engineers provided an important solution to the looming energy crisis of their day. As will be seen below, today’s attempts to change over to sustainable energy sources can, and should, learn from their creativity. And today the Francis turbine, developed in the mid-19^th century, which is still the most commonly used world-wide, provides a fitting legacy to their achievements.